This precludes pasteurizing in the same water bath that the food is cooked in. Since there is significant variation in the rate at which foods heat see Appendix A , a needle temperature probe must be used to determine when the food has come up to temperature. To prevent air or water from entering the punctured bag, the temperature probe must be inserted through closed cell foam tape.
Even when using closed cell foam tape which is similar to high density foam weather stripping , air will be able to enter the plastic pouch once the temperature probe is removed. In contrast, cooking in a water bath with a temperature just above the desired final core temperature of the food means the food can remain in the water bath almost indefinitely without being overcooked.
Thus, food can be pasteurized in the same water bath it is cooked in. While cooking times are longer than traditional cooking methods, the meat comes up to temperature surprisingly quickly because the thermal conductivity of water is 23 times greater than that of air. Moreover, temperature probes are not necessary because maximum cooking times can be tabulated see Appendix A and Tables 2. The myofibrillar proteins mostly myosin and actin and the connective tissue proteins mostly collagen contract when heated, while the sarcoplasmic proteins expand when heated.
These changes are usually called denaturation. During heating, the muscle fibers shrink transversely and longitudinally, the sarcoplasmic proteins aggregate and gel, and connective tissues shrink and solubilize.
The water-holding capacity of whole muscle meat is governed by the shrinking and swelling of myofibrils. For more information, see either the nontechnical description in McGee, , Chap 3 or the excellent review article by Tornberg When cooking tender meats, we just need to get the center up to temperature and, if pasteurizing, hold it there from some length of time.
Cooking times depend critically on the thickness of the meat: doubling the thickness of the meat increases the cooking time four fold! While there is no consensus as to what temperatures rare, medium-rare and medium correspond to, I use the temperatures in Table 2.
The approximate heating times for thawed and frozen meats are given in Tables 2. For a complete discussion on how these times were computed, please see Appendix A. If the food is not being pasteurized as is the case with fish and rare meat , it is important that the food come up to temperature and be served within four hours.
It is important that only immune-competent individuals consume unpasteurized food and that they understand the risks associated with eating unpasteurized food. Prolonged cooking e. Indeed, prolonged cooking can more than double the tenderness of the meat by dissolving all the collagen into gelatin and reducing inter-fiber adhesion to essentially nothing Davey et al.
This tenderizing is caused by weakening of connective tissue and proteolytic enzymes decreasing myofibrillar tensile strength. In the food industry, sous vide is used to extend the shelf life of cooked foods.
After pasteurizing, the food is rapidly chilled in its vacuum sealed pouch and refrigerated or frozen until needed. Before finishing for service, the food is then reheated in a water bath at or below the temperature it was cooked in. The danger with cook-chill is that pasteurizing does not reduce pathogenic spores to a safe level. If the food is not chilled rapidly enough or is refrigerated for too long, then pathogenic spores can outgrow and multiply to dangerous levels. For cooling and refrigeration guidelines, see Chapter 1.
Since sous vide is essentially a very controlled and precise poach, most food cooked sous vide has the appearance of being poached. So foods like fish, shellfish, eggs, and skinless poultry can be served as is.
However, steaks and pork chops are not traditionally poached and usually require searing or saucing. Searing the meat is particularly popular because the Maillard reaction the browning adds considerable flavor. The Maillard or browning reaction is a very complex reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars. After the initial reaction, an unstable intermediate structure is formed which undergoes further changes and produces hundreds of reaction by-products.
See McGee for a nontechnical description or Belitz et al. The flavor of cooked meat comes from the Maillard reaction and the thermal and oxidative degradation of lipids fats ; the species characteristics are mainly due to the fatty tissues, while the Maillard reaction in the lean tissues provides the savoury, roast and boiled flavors Mottram, The Maillard reaction can be increased by adding a reducing sugar glucose, fructose or lactose , increasing the pH e. Even small increases in pH, greatly increases the Maillard reaction and results in sweeter, nuttier and more roasted-meat-like aromas Meynier and Mottram, The addition of a little glucose e.
Mutagens formed in the Maillard reaction heterocyclic amines have been shown to be carcinogenic in mice, rats and non-human primates; however, while some epidemiological studies have shown a relation with cancer development, others have shown no significant relation in humans Arvidsson et al. While adding glucose increases browning, it can decreases the production of mutagens Skog, ; Skog et al.
The type of fat used to sear the meat in a pan has only minor effects on the formation of mutagens, but the pan residue using butter was significantly higher in mutagens than when using vegetable oil Johansson et al. In order to limit overcooking of the meat's interior, very high temperatures are often used to brown meat cooked sous vide. Typically, this means either using a blowtorch or a heavy skillet with just smoking vegetable oil.
Since the searing time at these high temperatures is very short 5—30 seconds , mutagens formation is unlikely to be significant Skog, Fish lends itself particularly well to being cooked sous vide. Since sous vide brings out the natural flavors of the fish, it is important that only very fresh fish which still smells of the sea be used. When purchasing fish, the flesh should be shiny, moist and firm to the touch; have your fishmonger package the fish with ice and store the fish on ice in your refrigerator.
Just before cooking, always check for and remove any scales or pin bones with needle-nose pliers or tweezers. Fish intended for immune compromised individuals or for cold holding i. While such a pasteurization will reduce all non-spore forming pathogens and parasites to a safe level, it will not reduce the risk of HAV or norovirus infection from shellfish.
Since the spores of non-proteolytic C. Remove the skin from the fillets. Then individually vacuum seal the fillets with 1—2 tablespoons of olive oil or butter. After removing the fillets from the water bath, the fish may either be served immediately perhaps after quickly searing in a hot skillet with just smoking oil or rapidly chilled in an ice water bath see Table 1.
Note that Fagan and Gormley found that freezing did not reduce the quality of fish which was cooked sous vide. While salmon mi-cuit is a popular among sous vide enthusiast, it should never be served to immune compromised individuals.
The low cooking temperatures in this recipe are not sufficient to reduce the number of foodborne pathogens or parasites.
The texture of sous vide prepared salmon is very moist and tender. To contrast this texture, the skin should be removed before vacuum packaging, crisped, and served as garnish. A common problem when cooking salmon, is that the protein albumin leaches out of the fish and coagulates unattractively on the surface.
For crisp salmon skin to contrast the very moist and tender texture of the salmon, remove the skin from the salmon and then brine the salmon in the refrigerator for 10 minutes. If cooking the salmon medium, the easiest way to crisp the skin and remove it from the salmon is to quickly sear the salmon skin side only in a pan over high heat with just smoking oil.
The skin will then easily peel off the flesh. The skin can then be finished with a blowtorch or simply placed in a warm oven until needed. If cooking the salmon rare or medium-rare, cut the skin off the fish and then crisp it between cooking sheets in the oven.
After the salmon has finished brining, rinse and pat dry with paper towels. Then season with salt, pepper and a hint of garlic powder. Vacuum seal the seasoned salmon in a plastic pouch with 1—2 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil frozen overnight if using a clamp style vacuum sealer. Cut the salmon into individual servings and vacuum seal. For rare and medium-rare salmon, cook the salmon for 15—20 minutes.
For medium salmon, pasteurize it for the time listed in Table 3. Then remove the salmon from its pouch, garnish with crisped salmon skin, and serve immediately. Remove any skin from the breast and reserve for garnish or discard. If tenderizing with a Jaccard, do so before brining. Rinse and dry with paper towels. Vacuum seal breasts one per bag. The breasts may be frozen at this point until needed. Remove breast from plastic pouch and dry with a paper towel.
The meat can then be served as is or browned slightly by using either a very hot pan with just smoking oil or a blowtorch. Serve immediately garnished with crisped skin. After brining, rinse legs and pat dry with paper towels. Individually vacuum seal the legs with 2—4 tablespoons of rendered fat. Since some of the liquid in the bag will change phase to gas , the bag will puff and may float to the surface.
To prevent uneven cooking, the bags should be held under water using a wire rack or some other restraint. To serve, reheat and sear until skin is crispy. May also be served without skin and torn into pieces. In Figure 4. Crack egg and serve immediately. Therefore, when working with highly susceptible or immune compromised populations, pasteurized eggs should always be used in dishes which call for raw eggs e.
Pasteurized intact eggs can be stored and used just like raw eggs. While the properties of the egg yolk are unaffected, the egg white is milky compared to a raw egg. Whipping time is significantly longer for pasteurized eggs, but the final whip volume is nearly the same Schuman et al.
For extended shelf-life i. After heating, sear the beef using either a blowtorch, a very hot grill, or a pan with just smoking oil.
They also found that holding the beef in the water bath for 90— minutes did not have a significant effect on the cooking weight or the shear force. This is the lowest temperature at which insoluble collagen denatures dissolves into gelatin, at higher temperatures the denaturing occurs more quickly Powell et al.
Beef cooked in a vacuum will look paler than medium-rare when first cut, but will get redder once exposed to oxygen. Rinse and dry steak with a paper towel.
Jaccard steak, then season with salt and pepper. Vacuum seal and freeze until needed. The meat will have a greenish-brown color after cooking which will disappear after searing. Remove steak from vacuum bag, pat dry with a paper towel, and sear quickly with a blowtorch or in a pan with smoking vegetable or nut oil. Dry roast with a paper towel. Then cut the roast so that it is no more than 70 mm 2. After removing the roast from its vacuum pouch, pat the roast dry with paper towels.
Then sear the roast to a deep mahogany color using a blowtorch. Then slice and serve immediately. Cut slits in the fat cap in a crosshatch patter. Rinse and dry brisket with paper towels. Flavor the brisket either by smoking it for 30—60 minutes or by searing the fat cap with a blowtorch. Then vacuum seal the brisket either whole or cut into two to four pieces.
Remove the brisket from the vacuum sealed pouch and use the liquid from the bag to create a quick sauce by reducing in a pan over medium-high heat and adding a corn starch slurry to thicken. Slice the meat across grain into long, thin slices and serve with beef glace. Vacuum seal pork chops one per bag. Remove chop from vacuum bag, pat dry with a paper towel, then sear quickly with a blowtorch or in a pan with smoking vegetable or nut oil.
If bone-in, remove the bone from the pork roast with a boning knife. Either cut roast into steaks which are roughly 7 ounces each, or cut the roast so that it is no more than 70 mm 2. Drain, rinse and pat dry with paper towels. Place each piece of pork in a vacuum bag with 1—2 tablespoons of lard preferably non-hydrogenated and seal. Remove the pork from the bag and reserve the liquid from the bag. Place the liquid in a container in the fridge overnight, skim the fat off and reserve the jellied stock for future use.
Dry the surface of the meat with a paper towel. For American style pulled pork, shred and serve with your favorite barbecue sauce. For Mexican style pulled pork, sear the surface with a blowtorch or in a pan with just smoking vegetable or nut oil before shredding. Cut the ribs into portions which will fit in the vacuum pouches say 3—4 ribs per piece.
Generously season the top of each rib with a barbecue spice rub say 2T paprika, 1. Place each piece of pork in a vacuum pouch and seal. After removing the ribs from the bag, sear the top with a blowtorch.
Then, serve immediately with barbecue sauce. This guide is primarily interested in modelling how long it takes the food to come up to temperature and how long it takes to pasteurize the food. These are non-trivial tasks. Many simplifications and assumptions are necessary. If we know the temperature at some initial time and can describe how the temperature at the surface changes, then we can uniquely determine T.
For example, a plot showing the measured and calculated core temperature of a 27 mm thick piece of Mahi- Mahi is shown in Figure A. Sanz et al. Most foods have a thermal diffusivity between 1. Thermal diffusivity depends on many things, including meat species, muscle type, temperature, and water content. Despite these variations in thermal diffusivity, we can always choose a minimum thermal diffusivity which will underestimate the temperature of the meat as it cooks and overestimate the temperature as it cools.
Thus, I use the lowest thermal diffusivities reported in the literature see Table A. Moreover, the food cannot overcook if it is placed in a water bath just above its desired final core temperature. Therefore, so long as the pouches do not float to the surface or are packed too tightly in the water bath, we can generate cooking tables which will assure perfectly cooked and sufficiently pasteurized meat.
Despite concerns in Geeraerd et al. For short cooking times such as when cooking fish , a pan of water on the stove can be used if you're willing to watch it closely and adjust the temperature by hand.
However, this becomes increasingly tedious for longer cooking times and most cooks use a digital controller to regulate the temperature. Most of these options use a PID or proportional-integral-derivative controller. A PID controller how much power goes to the heater based on the temperature you set and the current temperature. When correctly tuned, a PID controller can keep the water to within a fraction of the temperature you set it at.
But now many home enthusiasts with a maker temperment are making their own PID controllers with a RaspberryPi or Arduino; I don't recommend making your own PID controller, especially if you're not experience working with high voltage electricity. Most home cooks use a PID-controller use it with commercial rice cooker, a steam table or counter-top food warmer, a slow cooker or crock-pot, or a counter-top roaster. The most important consideration when purchasing such a device is that it must use a manual switch which will not be reset when the power is turned on and off by the temperature controller.
Many people prefer a rice cooker or steam table because they react faster than slow cookers and roasters and so have less temperature over shoot. Regardless of the heating device, I highly recommended circulating the water with an aquarium air bubbler, which — unlike an aquarium pump that must be submerged in the water — will hold up to the heat of sous vide cooking.
With all digital controllers, I recommend setting the temperature offset measured near the temperature at which you wish to cook using a high quality digital thermometer. I've use a SousVide Supreme since it came out and quite like it. Unlike an immersion circulator, it comes with a tight-fitting lid that greatly reduces water evaporation; this greatly reduces its electricity usage at higher temperatures and long cooking times.
The bottom and sides are also insulated, which further decreases its energy footprint. Some immersion circulator manufactures have claimed that it takes much longer to heat food in a SousVide Supreme compared with their immersion circulators.
In other words, once the surface heat transfer coefficient is high enough, the limiting factor is the thermal diffusivity of the food. I've tried the models from Anova, Nomiku, Sansaire, and PolyScience; any of them will work great in a home kitchen.
I especially like the latest models from Anova. The Creative series from PolyScience is also a good choice. While restaurant chefs can use immersion circulators designed for home cooks, most restaurant chefs prefer heavier-duty models. I have used models from both Julabo and PolyScience. I was impressed by the Julabo FusionChef Diamond series because of its premium build quality and features, but it comes at premium price. Which is good, because you'll probably want to have three or four going at different temperatures.
In the past, many sous vide enthusiasts bought use circulators off eBay from lab equipment resellers. The popularity of sous vide cooking has significantly increased the price of these used circulators and I can no longer recommend getting one. Most laboratory water baths are used around the clock and the remaining usable life per dollar is much less than a new consumer immersion circulator. Most restaurants use a 20 liter clear plastic food box Cambro with their immersion circulators.
While a large stock pot is an acceptable option, a polycarbonate food box provides better insulation and it's easy to see the food cooking inside it. When cooking a large amount of food, a large cooler is a great option when you cover the top with plastic wrap to limit evaporation. Moreover Sheard and Rodger found that none of the convection steam ovens they tested heated sous vide pouches uniformly when fully loaded.
Therefore, the tables in this guide cannot be used and needle temperatures probes must be used to determine cooking and pasteurization times. But while a water bath does a better job at sous vide cooking, modern ovens can do a lot more than sous vide cooking and can cook huge quantities of food. When using a resealable pouch, it's important to remove as much air as possible so it doesn't insulate the food from the water since air is a very poor conductor of heat.
I do this by adding liquid to the pouch with the raw food and then submerging the pouch in cool water to displace the air; for detailed instructions see pages — in Sous Vide for the Home Cook or watch my chicken breasts video.
You can also just drop the bottom of the pouch, with the food and liquid inside, into the hot water bath, leave the top open, and clamp the open top to the side of the water bath. Some home cooks use clamp-style vacuum sealers, such as a FoodSaver or the SousVide Supreme vacuum sealer.
The problem with clamp- or edge-style vacuum sealers is that it is difficult to get a strong vacuum, the bags are expensive compared to those used in chamber machines , and liquids tend to get sucked into the machine. If your recipe calls for liquid to be in the pouch, I'd recommend using a resealable pouch instead of your clamp-style vacuum sealer.
If you do want to use your clamp-style vacuum sealer, you can either. Some advanced home and many professional cooks use a chamber-style vacuum sealers such as the Minipack MVS However, chamber vacuum sealers are much larger and heavier than clamp style vacuum sealers and cost more than ten times as much. Regardless of how you vacuum seal your food, I recommend adding liquid to keep the food's edges from getting crimped while cooking. The more delicate the food, the more liquid you should add; for example, you might put the same weight of oil as scallops in the bag to keep them from getting deformed.
Accurate temperature control is important for safe sous vide cooking: pasteurization times depend critically on temperature. I recommended that anyone interested in precision cooking — sous vide or traditional — invest in a good digital thermometer. For everyday cooking, the Comark PDQ is a great entry-level thermocouple thermometer — I keep one in my backpack just in case I find myself cooking at a friend's house.
If you like doing science experiments, you might consider getting several interchangeable probes and a thermometer that can read them.
I have several K- and T-type probes from ThermoWorks and I'm very happy with them, especially the needle probes which respond very quickly. The pasteurization times for beef, lamb and pork are listed in Table C.
Table C. What problems does the food industry have with the spore-forming pathogens Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens? International Journal of Food Microbiology, —, Necla Aran. The effect of calcium and sodium lactates on growth from spores of Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens in a 'sous-vide' beef goulash under temperature abuse.
Gillian A. Armstrong and Heather McIlveen. Effects of prolonged storage on the sensory quality and consumer acceptance of sous vide meat-based recipe dishes. Food Quality and Preference, —, Arvidsson, M. Van Boekel, K. Skog, and M. Kineteics of formation of polar heterocyclic amines in a meat model system.
Journal of Food Science, 62 5 —, De Baerdemaeker and B. Equipment considerations for sous vide cooking. Food Control, 6 4 : —, Betts and J. Growth and heat resistance of psychrotropic Clostridium botulinum in relation to 'sous vide' products. Food Control, —63, Bolton, C. McMahon, A. Doherty, J. Sheridan, D. McDowell, I. Blair, and D. Thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica in minced beef under laboratory conditions and in sous-vide prepared minced and solid beef cooked in a commercial retort.
Journal of Applied Microbiology, —, Bouton and P. Journal of Food Science, —, Ivor Church. The sensory quality, microbiological safety and shelf life of packaged foods. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, Maryland, Ivor J. Church and Anthony L. The sensory quality of chicken and potato products prepared using cook-chill and sous vide methods. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, —, Philip G. The sensory and nutritional quality of 'sous vide' foods.
Food Control, 6 1 —52, Sensory and nutritional aspects of sous vide processed foods. Lester Davey, Alan F. Niederer, and Arie E. Effects of ageing and cooking on the tenderness of beef muscle. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, —, Effect of vacuum cooling on the thermophysical properties of a cooked beef product.
Journal of Food Engineering, —, Heat resistance of Listeria monocytogenes in vacuum packaged pasteurized fish fillets.
International Journal of Food Microbiology, —95, Fagan and T. Effect of sous vide cooking, with freezing, on selected quality parameters of seven fish species in a range of sauces. European Food Research and Technology, —, Food code. Technical report, U. Department of Health and Human Services, Pablo S. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65 8 —, Time-temperature tables for cooking ready-to-eat poultry products. Notice , Food Safety and Inspection Service, Gonzalez-Fandos, M.
Microbiological and nutritional quality of sous vide or traditionally processed fish: Influence of fat content. Journal of Food Quality, —, Effect of cooking method on mechanical properties, color and structure of beef muscle M.
Geeraerd, C. Herremans, and J. Van Impe. Structural model requirements to describe microbial inactivation during a mild heat treatment. Ghazala, J. Aucoin, and T. Pasteurization effect on fatty acid stability in a sous vide product containing seal meat Phoca groenlacdica.
Journal of Food Science, 61 3 —, Evaluation of the microbiological safety and sensory quality of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss processed by the sous vide method. Food Microbiology, —, Microbiological safety and sensory characteristics of salmon slices processed by the sous vide method.
Food Control, —85, Food Control, —51, Graiver, A. Pinotti, A. Califano, and N. Diffusion of sodium chloride in pork tissue. Hansen and S. Thermal inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes during rapid and slow heating in sous vide cooked beef. Letters in Applied Microbiology, —, Tina B. Storage characteristics of sous vide cooked roast beef. Lihan Huang. Computer simulation of heat transfer during in-package pasteurization of beef frankfurters by hot water immersion.
Skog, P. Arvidsson, and A. Chemistry, formation and occurrence of genotoxic heterocyclic amines identified in model systems and cooked foods. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch A, —, Johansson, L.
Fredholm, I. Bjerne, and M. Influence of frying fat on the formation of heterocyclic amines in fried beefburgers and pan residues. Dark Meat. Chicken Leg or Thigh, bone in. Chicken Thigh, boneless. Turkey Leg or Thigh. Duck Leg. Split Game Hen. Baby Back Ribs. Chops, Cutlets. Spare Ribs. Belly quick. Belly slow. Tender Cuts. Tenderloin, Rib-eye, T-bone,.
Tough Cuts and Grassfed 2. Bison, Game. Lamb Roast or Leg. Flank Steak, Brisket. Rabbit Leg. Tuna, Halibut, Snapper, Sole,. Salmon, Trout, Mackerel. Crustaceans , Mollusks. Apple, Pear. Peach, Apricot, Plum, Mango,. Papaya, Nectarine, Berries. EGGS 3. Soft- cooked in shell quick. Soft- cooked in shell slow. Hard- cooked in shell. Pasteurized in shell. Scrambled 5 eggs. Medium Rare.
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